Table 1 Common Pain Behaviours in Cognitively Impaired Elderly Persons according to the AGS Panel on Persistent Pain in Older Persons [16]

1: Facial expressions

Slight frown/sad or frightened expression

Grimacing, wrinkled forehead, closed or tightened eyes

Any distorted expression

Rapid blinking

2: Verbalisations & vocalisations

Sighing, moaning, groaning

Grunting, chanting, calling out

Noisy breathing

Asking for help

Verbally abusive

3: Body movements

Rigid, tense body posture, guarding

Fidgeting

Increased pacing, rocking

Restricted movement

Gait or mobility changes

4: Changes in interpersonal interactions

Aggressive, combative, resisting care

Decreased social interactions

Socially inappropriate, disruptive

Withdrawn

5: Changes in activity patterns or routines

Refusing food, appetite change

Increase in rest periods

Sleep, rest pattern changes

Sudden cessation of common routines

Increased wandering

6 Mental status changes

Crying or tears

Increased confusion

Irritability or distress